Transition period

Leonid Brezhnev (1906-1982) became the head of the Communist Party and the Soviet state in 1964. He was reluctant to reform and asserted that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene if socialism was threatened in another socialist state (Brezhnev Doctrine). By the period of his rule, the Soviets had reached a rough parity with the United States in nuclear arms and enjoyed a sense of external security that seemed to allow for a relaxation of authoritarian rule. His regime permitted more access to Western styles of music, dress, and art, though dissenters were punished. Economically, Brezhnev continued to emphasize heavy industry. Central planning with a huge bureaucracy, however, hindered growth. Moreover, a system of guaranteed employment and lack of incentives bred apathy, complacency, absenteeism, and drunkenness. By the 1980s, the Soviet Union was ailing.
 * &text1=Era of Brezhnev

By 1980, Poland had substantial economic problems, especially in the high cost of food. A response to these difficulties was the creation of an independent labor movement called Solidarity. It was led by Lech Walesa (b.1943) and soon came to represent 10 million of Poland's 35 million people. The union won a number of concessions until December 1981 when the government arrested Walesa and other Solidarity leaders, outlawed the union, and imposed military rule. Martial law did not solve the economic problems and in 1988 demonstrations led the government to call free parliamentary elections. The newly elected Solidarity coalition formed a new government, thus ending forty-five years of Communist rule in Poland. In December, Walesa was chosen as the new Polish president.
 * &text2=Emergence of Solidarity in Poland

As the Soviet Union began to fall apart so too did communist regimes in Eastern Europe. In 1990, elections were held in Hungary and the new Democratic Forum party overwhelmed the communist candidates. The same was the case in Czechoslovakia where Civic Forum forced the collapse of communist government. In January 1990, Vaclav Havel (b. 1936) brought democracy to the state. Ethnic issues led to the peaceful split on January 1, 1993, of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Romania, however, did not break from communism peacefully. Nicolae Ceausescu (1918-1989) and his wife established a rigid and dictatorial regime in 1965. Failed economic policies, a plan for rapid urbanization, and the crushing of demonstration in December 1989 led to mass demonstrations. On December 21, Ceausescu was booed at a rally and seized the following day. He and his wife were tried and executed on Christmas Day. Less violent were the events in Bulgaria where antigovernment demonstrations in the capital Sofia forced the removal of the general secretary of the Communist Party. Elections were held in November 1991 and a new government coalition came to power, though the communists remain a potent force in Bulgarian politics. Lastly, Albania, Eastern Europe's smallest and poorest country, experience revolutionary upheaval in 1989 and by March 1991 free elections were held.
 * &text3=Revolutions in Eastern Europe

By the end of the 1980s, Yugoslavia was caught up in the reform movements sweeping Europe. Adding to the complexity of Yugoslavia was the failure of a strong national leader to emerge in 1980 after the death of Marshal Tito who had held Yugoslavia together since the end of World War II. Complicating Yugoslavia was the development of separatist movement. Rejecting a new federal structure for Yugoslavia was Slobodan Milosevic who had become the leader of the Serbian Communist Party in 1987. In September 1991, Milosevic's army turned against Croatia and one-third of its lands captured. Next, in 1992, Milosevic turned on Bosnia. A formal peace did not come until 1995 brokered by President Bill Clinton of the United States. A new war erupted in Kosovo in 1999. Earlier, in 1989, Milosevic has stripped Kosovo of its autonomous status and outlawed any official use of the Albanian language. In 1993 ethnic Albanian founded the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and began a campaign against Serbian rule in Kosovo. When Serb forces began to massacre ethnic Albanians to crush the KLA, the United States and NATO allies stepped in to arrange a settlement. A peace plan was negotiated but Milosevic refused to sign the agreement. The United States and the NATO allies initiated a bombing campaign that forced the Yugoslavian government into compliance. In elections in 2000, Milosevic was ousted from power and later put on trial by an international tribunal for war crimes against humanity.
 * &text4=War in Kosovo

Mikhail Gorbachev (b. 1931) was a party bureaucrat who rose rapidly to become a member of the ruling Politburo and secretary of the Central Committee in 1980. At the Communist Party congress of 1986, Gorbachev made clear the need for changes in Soviet society. The cornerstone of his reforms was perestroika (restructuring) which at first only meant the reordering of economic policy with limited free enterprise and some private property. Tied to perestroika was glasnost (openness) in which the Soviet people were to discuss openly the strengths and weaknesses of the Soviet Union. In politics, Gorbachev called for the creation of a new Soviet parliament whose members would be chosen in competitive elections. Moreover, other political parties were legalized and no longer were the communists guaranteed a leading role. Gorbachev also created a new state presidency since the Communist Party and the state were no longer tied. In March 1990, Gorbachev was elected the Soviet Union's first president.
 * &text5=Gorbachev comes to power in the Soviet Union

With the Soviet Union containing 92 nationalities and 112 recognized languages, it was a nation of natural divisions and ethnic tensions. As Gorbachev released the grip of the Soviet Union, tensions surfaced (a product of glasnost). The first nationalist movement sprang up in Georgia in late 1988 and then in Latvia, Estonia, Moldavia, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, and Lithuania. On March 11, 1990, the Lithuanian Supreme Council proclaimed Lithuania an independent state. In the midst of all this, a group of discontented conservatives on August 19, 1991, arrested Gorbachev and attempted to seize power. The resistance of Boris Yeltsin (president of the Russian Republic) and thousands of Russians caused the coup to disintegrate rapidly. This just accelerated the collapse of the Soviet Union. On December 1, 1991, the Ukraine voted for independence and a week later the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Balarus announced the Soviet Union ceased to exist and would be replaced with a new, voluntary Commonwealth of Independent States. Gorbachev resigned on December 25, 1991, and turned over his responsibilities as commander and chief to Boris Yeltsin.
 * &text6=Dissolution of the Soviet Union

After two decades of economic growth, Europe faced two severe economic recession in 1973-1973 and 1979-1983. This played a role I seeking further integration of their economies. In 1973, the European Economic Community expanded when Great Britain, Ireland, and Denmark joined what its members now called the European Community. By 1986, three additional members had been added: Spain, Portugal, and Greece. On January 1, 1994, the EC became the European Union as its members sought to create a true economic and monetary union.
 * &text7=Common Market expands (European Community)

The economic slump of the 1980s and the oppressiveness of the government of Erich Honecker (b. 1912) provided the impetus to rebellion in East Germany. Especially troublesome was Honecker's refusal to institute reforms. This led to mass demonstration in the summer and fall of 1989. Conceding to popular pressure, on November 9, the Communist government opened the entire border with the West. As a consequence, people began to tear down the Berlin Wall. By December, new political parties were emerging and on March 18, 1990, East Germany had its first free election. The Christian Democrats won almost fifty percent of the vote. They wanted political unification with West Germany. On July 1, 1990, the economies of West and East Germany were united. Political unification was achieved on October 3, 1990.
 * &text8=Reunification of Germany

In 1979, after Britain's economic problems seemed to worsen under the Labour government, The Conservatives returned to power under Margaret Thatcher (b. 1925). She became the first woman to become prime minister in British history. She pledged to lower taxes, reduce government bureaucracy, limit social welfare, restrict union power, and end inflation. Thatcher broke the power of the labor unions but did not eliminate the basic components of the social welfare system. Using austerity, she also controlled inflation. The cost of controlled inflation was unequal economic growth and undermining of education due to cutbacks. In foreign policy, she joined President Ronald Reagan in a hard-line approach to communism.
 * &text9=Margaret Thatcher becomes prime minister of Britain

The Treaty on European Union (also called the Maastrich Treaty) was agreed to by members of the European Community in 1991. It sought to create a true economic and monetary union of all EC members. On January 1, the EC became the European Union. One of the first goals was to introduce a common currency, called the Euro. This was adopted by eleven EU nations early in 1999 and officially the euro replace eleven national currencies in 2001.
 * &text10=European Union

Pope John Paul II (b. 1920) had been the archbishop of Krakow, Poland, before being elected pope in 1978. He was the first non-Italian elected pope since the sixteenth century. As pope, he reasserted traditional Catholic teaching on such issues as birth control, women in the priesthood, and clerical celibacy. John Paul also traveled extensively, strengthening the Catholic Church through out the non-Western world. He is a strong voice in reminding people to temper pursuit of materialism with spiritual concerns. He has also consistently reminded world leaders of their obligation to prevent war. &text12=Anselm Kiefer, Departure from Egypt Anselm Kiefer is an Abstract Expressionist who combine Abstract Expressionism, collage, and German Expressionism to create works that are stark and haunting. His Departure from Egypt (1984) is a meditation on Jewish history and its descent into the horrors of Nazism. Kiefer hoped that a portrayal of Germany's atrocities could free Germans from their past and bring some good out of evil.
 * &text11=John Paul II becomes Pope

Growing ecological awareness gave rise to the Green movements and Green parties that emerged throughout Europe in the 1970s. Most visible was the Green Party in Germany that was officially organized in 1979 and by 1987 had elected forty-two delegates to the West German Parliament.
 * &text13=Organization of Green Party in Germany

Acts of terrorism by individuals and groups opposed to governments became a frightening aspect of modern Western society. One of the most destructive acts was terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, when two hijacked aircraft flew into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. Another hijacked plane slammed into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. A fourth aircraft apparently heading for Washington was forced to crash by its heroic passengers. More than three thousand people were killed in the attacks. Later, it was determined that the acts of terror were carried out by hijackers connected to an international terrorist organization known as al-Qaida run by Osama bin Laden.
 * &text14=Terrorist attack on United States

The response of the United States to the September 11, 2001, assault was to declare war on terrorism and in particular Osama bin Laden who had taken refuge in Afghanistan under the protection of the militant fundamentalist Islamic rulers known as the Taliban. Troops from the United States and NATO were sent to Afghanistan within weeks of the attack and the Taliban were driven from power by November. A democratic, multiethnic government was installed in Afghanistan but elements of the Taliban and al-Quida remained in the mountains and bordering Pakistan.
 * &text15=War against terrorism in Afghanistan