Russian Federation

Sport, Politics and The Cold War Meredith Pavia History 20.4s Professor Silbey March 12, 1998 The United States and the Soviet Union are fundamentally different nations. Extreme political and economic differences exist as a result of opposing national ideologies. These differences manifested themselves in many ways following the end of World War II resulting in a precarious state now referred to as the Cold War. The advent of nuclear weapons prevented military confrontation between the worlds superpowers, yet a constant power struggle and an atmosphere riddled with tension remained. The Cold War was ripe with potential political or military crises of international magnitude; the Bay of Pigs, Cuban missile crisis, problems with the Suez canal, invasions of Hungary and Afghanistan, issues with China and Vietnam and the space race. Often overlooked is the role sport, specifically the Olympic Games, played in the Cold War between these two superpowers.

In world politics and international affairs sport is an intrinsic part of each nation in addition to being an entity that nation can use. Sport reflects the personality and politics of each nation and at the same time sport can be wielded as a political tool or weapon. International sports and the Olympic competitions which showcase nations athletes paralleled the trends of the Cold War, as well as interactions and relations between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

In proposing that sport reflects the politics of the times, it is necessary to present some background depicting sport as representative of differing societies. The Soviet Unions dominance in athletics is a fairly recent phenomenon. Russia participated in international sporting competitions throughout her history. With the creation of the Soviet Union this international interaction ceased. The Soviets believed in isolating themselves from Western, capitalist nations and kept their athletic endeavors strictly regional and with other "friendly" socialist nations. Despite this the Soviets did not lessen there commitment to physical fitness. To the Soviets, sport was a crucial element in the equation which produced military prowess. Shooting, skiing and other athletic events were vital in developing a strong body which in turn made for a more productive fighting force. Introducing sport to society in the USSR served many functions: "Training the citizen in military techniques, improving his health and exercising his muscles to raise labor productivity, instilling Communist mores through collective play activity, and generally supervising and controlling his leisure time." ( Morton, Henry. Soviet Sport. New York: Collier Books, 1963. 68.)Soviet performance in the second world war reaffirmed to Sovietleadership that the investment in sport had been worthwhile. The Party perceived more advantages to sport with international involvement and as a result sent a team from the USSR to its first Olympics in 1952. The Soviets viewed success in international sports competitions to be indicative of success as a nation. Excellence in athletics would demonstrate to the world that socialism is the best way of life. Sports was a facet of life which the Soviets could be viewed as equals with their Western counterparts.

Athletics are capable of crossing cultural boundaries and can create a forum for peaceful international interaction. Athletics can also be manipulated to serve a nation. The communist thesis maintains "sport superiority signifies the superiority of the political culture which spawns it." ( Hoberman, John. The Olympic Crisis. New York: Aristide Caratzas, 1986. 10.) The Soviets joined the Olympic movement, not to advocate peace and the high ideals of its founders, but to legitimize its place in international circles.

With this goal in mind the Party set up a system which produced some of the finest athletes the world has seen. At an extremely young age children are screened for athletic potential. They are nurtured and sent to sports boarding school for the best training. "By operating a comprehensive, centrally controlled, heavily subsidized sports program; by coaching selected athletes in the latest methods gathered from domestic and foreign experiences in special sport schools and at climatically favorable training sites for long periods; and by offering them material rewards, prestige, and opportunities beyond their sports prime (on a parallel with other privileged groups of Soviet society), they have achieved a glowing Olympic and international sport record."( Morton, Henry. Soviet Sport. New York: Collier Books, 1963. 90-91.)

Sport in Soviet society is not a pastime, not a leisure activity. It is a way of life, ingrained by the Party and as intricate a part of socialism and society as anything else. It serves to further the Party, further the state. Sport is a microcosm of Soviet society. The gifted are selected at an early age and achieve a high level in society. If you can aid the party you are viewed as useful and treated extremely well, reaping many economic, social, and political benefits. If you cannot you are most likely poor and receive no aid or support from the government. This does not fit the theory behind socialist society where everyone is taken care of by the state, but realistic Soviet society is not the ideal. The Party protects it own. Again, sport is a mirror of society. The United States, the superpower standing opposite the USSR following World War II, is a capitalist nation with a completely different ideology. Sport is perceived as a leisure activity. It is fun and it is enjoyable, which is not to say it is not competitive. Sport is taken seriously by those athletes that are the nations best; however, sport is not financed by the government. The most talented swimmer in the country could elect not to participate in any competition and the government would not intervene, nor would it know. National athletics are not dominated by ideology. There is no central source nor are athletes required to serve the nation. All clubs, tournaments and schools are initiated by the individual or individual corporation. This goes along with the theory of capitalism our society is predicated upon. Each individual has equal opportunity for economic and social advancement. The government exists to protect certain rights and to maintain order. Colleges and universities choose to reward students with athletic talent with scholarships and some of the funding for this does come from the federal government. The difference, however, lies in the path an athlete travels before gaining money for his talents. Participation in the sport he excels at was a personal choice made independent of the government.

With sport being so fully intertwined within the fabric of both U.S. and Soviet society it is not surprising that it was significant in the cold war interaction between these two nations. "The modern games...have been utilized not so much for international fair play, peace and understanding as for national self interest, survival and pride."( Espy, Richard. The Politics of the Olympic Games. Los Angeles: University of California Press. VII.) The nineteen seventies, as lead up to the 1980 Olympic boycott, present an opportunity to analyze international politics in relation to sport. The first noteworthy example of the decade was the United States attempt at diplomatic relations with China through a series of Ping-Pong matches. Communist China had been previously unrecognized by the United States. There was lingering distrust between the two nations and China had been fairly isolationist. The olive branch of sport was a large step in bridging the gap between these dichotomous nations.

Munich was the next stage for international politics in 1972 shifting nations Cold War alignments. The Olympic games brought the world together and the Arabs utilized this forum for terrorism, killing eleven Israelis. The Soviets were the only nation at the games which did not have a delegation at the memorial service. This action furthered the Soviet image as a cold, removed nation. The terrorist act also prompted a realignment of nations. The Soviet relations with Egypt, previously strained, were restored and the Soviets resumed military presence in Egypt. West German relations with Egypt broke down and arms were again supplied to the Palestinians. Any hopes of a resolution to the Arab-Israeli conflict was completely removed. It can be claimed that the oil embargo staged by the Arabs in 1973 was a retaliation for the anti-Arab sentiment following the games. The Munich Olympics also underscored tensions between the Soviets and Americans. The U.S. lost in the gold medal basketball game to the Soviets on the games last play amid much controversy. The United States players refused their silver medals and bad feelings persisted between the two nations. The USSR claimed that the medal totals demonstrated "the triumph of the personality liberated by socialism."( Espy, Richard. The Politics of the Olympic Games. Los Angeles: University of California Press. 133.)

Conflict and ill will continued with the selection of the host of the 1976 Games. The Soviet Union (Moscow), the United States (Los Angeles) and Canada (Montreal) were all vying for the right to host the games. Montreal was awarded the Games on the second ballot even though the USSR had had the most votes on the first ballot. The Soviets protested that the North American nations were conspiring against them and that there was a conspiracy to keep the Games out of a socialist state. With the 1976 Olympic Games came the question of communist China. The Peoples Republic of China was a member of very few international sports organizations. Taiwan was more commonly recognized by the international community. In the years leading up to the games, however, the Peoples Republic of China was gaining support and had been admitted to nine sports federations. Canada, the host of the games, refused to allow Taiwan (Republic of China) to compete. Compromises were discussed, but in the end Taiwan did not attend. The U.S. and the Soviet Union were both in uproar about the situation. Once again political agendas permeated the games as Canada used the Olympics as a means of recognizing on the Peoples Republic as a viable nation. 1976 also served as a political sensor for Rhodesia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Multiple nations were in favor of banning the countries from the games because of their practice of racial discrimination. Numerous countries boycotted the games due to the International Olympic Committees refusal to ban New Zealand from the games.

The use of the Olympic games as a forum for international politics and a tool for political debate reached its zenith with the Moscow Games in 1980. As early as 1978 the USSR began purges of the city of Moscow. The Party wanted to be sure to remove all elements of the population which might initiate demonstrations. The Soviets also evacuated the children from the area so they would not be exposed to Western ideas. A great concern of the Soviets was the potential for border crossing during the Games. They feared the possibility of Western exposure prompting treason or defection. With the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan another struggle between East and West emerged. The U.S. was furious that the USSR was invading another independent nation. Military force was not a plausible course of action for voicing displeasure; however, President Carter believed he must make some type of stand. A boycott of the Olympic Games, first suggested by the West Germans, seemed like the best idea. "We must make clear to the Soviet Union that it cannot trample upon and independent nation and at the same time do business as usual with the rest of the world. We must make clear that it will pay a heavy economic and political cost for such aggressions."( Hoberman, John. The Olympic Crisis New York: Aristide Caratzas, 1986. 66.)	Carter cited sports competition as part of Soviet governmental policy, just as the invasion of Afghanistan was a policy decision.

The U.S., along with President Carter, hoped that the boycott would serve two purposes: to punish the USSR for its invasion of Afghanistan and to show the world that the US had the will to resist Soviet aggression.( Hulme, Derick, L. The Political Olympics: Moscow, Afghanistan, and the 1980 US Boycott. New York: Praeger, 1990. 21.) The Cold War hinged upon demonstrations of power short of military intervention and any method by which either nation could gain a perceived upper hand was pounced upon. The United States was taking a "moral stand" with its proposed boycott and was attempting to bring as many nations to its side as possible. The US tried to appeal to its allies as well as Third World countries to demonstrate the issue was not East versus West, but right versus wrong. The Soviets used propaganda to belittle the US. The USSR claimed that the US was using the boycott as a means of preventing other peoples from seeing the superior Soviet way of life. The Soviets also claimed that the US call for a boycott was an attempt at shifting national attention away from domestic troubles during an election year.

The Moscow Olympics exhibited a debate between two political worlds; like all other cold war battles neither nation won, and both nations believed they had made significant gains. The boycott served to prevent an influx of Westerners into USSR and helped keep ideas potentially damaging to the Soviets out. The US had complete domestic support for the boycott, however the allies appeared disunited when Britain and France participated. Private industries in the US were hurt by the boycott, although not as badly as the Soviets were. Sixty-two nations, ten of which were medal winners in the last Olympics, did boycott the Games which detracted from the Soviets world publicity. The Soviets lost dearly economically. Hosting the Olympics is a huge investment and the return on that investment was significantly reduced without Western tourists. Most significantly perhaps, "Moscow would not be the focus of world attention; neither would the Soviet Unions appeal as a rival state and social system receive the corollary boost expected as a result of the Games."( Hulme, Derick, L. The Political Olympics: Moscow, Afghanistan, and the 1980 US Boycott. New York: Praeger, 1990. 76.) The Cold War was deeply affected by international sentiment. It was primarily affected by public opinion, image and propaganda. Sports bring spectators; the Olympics bring a worldwide audience. Both nations wished to capitalize on this opportunity. The US gave the Soviets an ultimatum to pull out of Afghanistan. The USSR was never going to give in to an American ultimatum. There were still no battles, but there were no victories either. "The Olympic games, when viewed both as microcosm of and as actor in international relations, provides a unique opportunity to examine at one time the numerous forces on the international scene."( Espy, Richard. The Politics of the Olympic Games. Los Angeles: U of California Press, 1979. IX.)

International sports, primarily as a result of intense commercialization, have become vehicles for political maneuvering globally. The Cold War and the Olympic troubles which came with it are a defining example of this condition. Sport is an intrinsic facet of national identity and it would follow that sport can be manipulated internationally to achieve national political gains.

Espy, Richard. The Politics of the Olympic Games. Los Angeles: U of California Press, 1979.

Guttmann, Allen. The Games Must Go On. New York: Colombia University Press, 1984.

Hoberman, John. The Olympic Crisis: Sport, Politics and the Moral Order. New York: Aristide Caratzas, 1986.

Hulme, Derick, L. The Political Olympics: Moscow, Afghanistan, and the 1980 U.S. Boycott. New York: Praeger, 1990.

Morton, Henry, W. Soviet Sport: Mirror of Soviet Society. New York: Collier Books, 1963.

Riordan, James. Soviet Sport Background to the Olympics. New York: Washington Mews Books, 1980.

Shaikin, Bill. Sport and Politics. New York: Praeger, 1988.